Intention to Pursue Overseas Jobs among University Students and Graduates : A Case Study from University of Peradeniya , Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is experiencing migration of skilled workers, which has been on the increase over the years. Graduates are one of the most valuable skilled worker groups that Sri Lanka produces and it is clear that some of them are leaving the country to secure employment overseas. Yet it is unclear why these individuals leave or whether their decision to leave is consistent with their objectives while at the university. This paper used the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to understand the behavioural intention to pursue overseas employment by identifying the relevant antecedent factors and assessing whether the actual behaviour is facilitated by the perceived behaviour towards overseas jobs. The study involved collection of data from 200 undergraduates of, and 397 graduates (201 migrated graduates, 196 graduates in Sri Lanka) who graduated from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Data were analyzed using the hierarchical multiple regression analysis and hierarchical logistic regression analysis. Findings showed that the attitudes and self-efficacy fully contributed while the subjective norms partially contributed to the prediction of behavioural intention towards an overseas career. Both perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention had contributed to predict the actual behaviour. Keyword: Graduates’ behavioural intention, overseas job intention, career planning of university students INTRODUCTION Choosing career alternatives outside Sri Lanka is becoming increasingly common among the skilled workers (DCS, 2010). Graduates are a major category of skilled migrants (Carrington and Detragiache, 1998; Adams, 2003; Docquier and Marfouk, 2004, 2006; Dumont and Lemaitre, 2004) and have attracted considerable attention in this context (Faggian et al. 2006, 2007a, b; Faggian and McCann, 2009; Bond et al., 2008) in the recent years. One manner in which attention has been drawn to graduates is in terms of their competitiveness in the global job market. The International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2010) identifies Sri Lanka as having a large mismatch between the international demand for jobs and its capability to address these demands. Sri Lankan labour migration is concentrated on low-skilled labour categories (MFEPW, 2013). The Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment (SLBFE, 2011) reported that the global demand for skilled workers was 252,430 in 2010. The skilled workers from Sri Lanka filled 28 percent of this demand. While not all skilled workers may necessarily be 1 Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka * Corresponding author: asawee999@gmail.com Intention to pursue overseas jobs 97 graduates, the latter may constitute a significant portion of skilled workers and would represent a segment of the population that may be able to fill these positions. The University Grants Commission (UGC, 2011) reported that the graduate output from all the government universities in 2010 was 12,346. Considering the current concern over the employability of graduates (Mahinda Chinthana, 2005), understanding their interest in pursuing such positions will be useful. From the perspective of the government and its concern over foreign revenue, Sri Lanka depends largely on remittances. In the year 2012, remittances were around 9 percent of the GDP (CBSL, 2013), which is a significant contribution. In addition, the SLBFE (2011) highlights the fact that the earnings from skilled jobs are much higher than semi-skilled and unskilled jobs. Hence, the GDP from remittances could be increased with the increase in overseas employment of skilled workers from Sri Lanka. Conceptual framework of the Study Although, skilled migration/ brain drain has attracted considerable attention of many researchers (e.g. Bhagwati and Hamada, 1974; Bhagawati and Wilson, 1989; Wickramasekara, 2002; Commander et al., 2004; Schiff, 2005; Docquier et al., 2007) with respect to losses and benefits for the donor country, it is difficult to find research on the determinants behind the migrant's intentions and perception on choosing a foreign posting as a career option. Thus, this study aimed at investigating the determinants that facilitate Sri Lankan university students’ and graduates’ persuasion towards seeking overseas jobs and to identify whether the actual behaviour is facilitated by the perceived behaviour toward overseas jobs. Theory of Planned Behaviour TPB (Ajzen, 1991) has been successfully used to explain the behaviour across a wide variety of contexts (Lin et al., 1999). According to the TPB, intention to perform a behaviour is a consequence of one’s attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. Attitude refers to an individual's judgment of an object (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), subjective norms are the perceived social pressures to perform or not the behaviour, and perceived behavioural control is the perceived ease or difficulty of performing a behaviour of interest (Ajzen, 1991).The behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control affect the actual behaviour (Fig 1).


INTRODUCTION
Choosing career alternatives outside Sri Lanka is becoming increasingly common among the skilled workers (DCS, 2010).Graduates are a major category of skilled migrants (Carrington and Detragiache, 1998;Adams, 2003;Docquier andMarfouk, 2004, 2006;Dumont and Lemaitre, 2004) and have attracted considerable attention in this context (Faggian et al. 2006(Faggian et al. , 2007a, b;, b;Faggian and McCann, 2009;Bond et al., 2008) in the recent years.One manner in which attention has been drawn to graduates is in terms of their competitiveness in the global job market.
The International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2010) identifies Sri Lanka as having a large mismatch between the international demand for jobs and its capability to address these demands.Sri Lankan labour migration is concentrated on low-skilled labour categories (MFEPW, 2013).The Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment (SLBFE, 2011) reported that the global demand for skilled workers was 252,430 in 2010.The skilled workers from Sri Lanka filled 28 percent of this demand.While not all skilled workers may necessarily be graduates, the latter may constitute a significant portion of skilled workers and would represent a segment of the population that may be able to fill these positions.The University Grants Commission (UGC, 2011) reported that the graduate output from all the government universities in 2010 was 12,346.Considering the current concern over the employability of graduates (Mahinda Chinthana, 2005), understanding their interest in pursuing such positions will be useful.
From the perspective of the government and its concern over foreign revenue, Sri Lanka depends largely on remittances.In the year 2012, remittances were around 9 percent of the GDP (CBSL, 2013), which is a significant contribution.In addition, the SLBFE (2011) highlights the fact that the earnings from skilled jobs are much higher than semi-skilled and unskilled jobs.Hence, the GDP from remittances could be increased with the increase in overseas employment of skilled workers from Sri Lanka.

Conceptual framework of the Study
Although, skilled migration/ brain drain has attracted considerable attention of many researchers (e.g.Bhagwati and Hamada, 1974;Bhagawati and Wilson, 1989;Wickramasekara, 2002;Commander et al., 2004;Schiff, 2005;Docquier et al., 2007) with respect to losses and benefits for the donor country, it is difficult to find research on the determinants behind the migrant's intentions and perception on choosing a foreign posting as a career option.Thus, this study aimed at investigating the determinants that facilitate Sri Lankan university students' and graduates' persuasion towards seeking overseas jobs and to identify whether the actual behaviour is facilitated by the perceived behaviour toward overseas jobs.
Theory of Planned Behaviour -TPB (Ajzen, 1991) has been successfully used to explain the behaviour across a wide variety of contexts (Lin et al., 1999).According to the TPB, intention to perform a behaviour is a consequence of one's attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control.Attitude refers to an individual's judgment of an object (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), subjective norms are the perceived social pressures to perform or not the behaviour, and perceived behavioural control is the perceived ease or difficulty of performing a behaviour of interest (Ajzen, 1991).The behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control affect the actual behaviour (Fig 1).

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework
The model proposed by Taylor and Todd (1995) and Morris and Dillon (1997) provides support to the idea that attitudes exert effect on behavioural intention.Hence, the associated hypotheses in this study were, H1 : Attitudes towards overseas jobs will positively affect individual's behavioural intention to do overseas jobs.H2 : There is a significant relationship between subjective norms and behavioural intention towards overseas jobs.H3: There is a significant relationship between perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention towards overseas jobs.According to Ajzen (1985Ajzen ( , 1991)), the perceived behavioural control is made up of selfefficacy and resource facilitating condition.Resource facilitating condition reflects the availability of resources needed to engage in a behaviour such as time, money or other specialized resources.Self-efficacy refers to individuals' belief in their capacity to accomplish a job or set of tasks (Bandura et al., 1977).Thus, the related hypothesis for this study were; H4: There is a relationship between resource facilitating condition and behavioural intention toward overseas jobs.H5: There is a relationship between self-efficacy and behavioural intention toward overseas jobs.

Perceived Behavioural Control
Beliefs regarding access to resources, knowledge & opportunities needed to do overseas job

Resource Facilitating Conditions Self-Efficacy
The concept of TPB was based on the idea that behavioural achievement depends on behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1985;1989).Hence, the associated hypothesis for this study were; H6: Behavioural intention toward overseas jobs will positively affect the individual's behaviour to do an overseas job H7: Perceived behavioural control toward overseas jobs will positively affect the individual's behaviour to do an overseas job Further, gender and Faculties of study in the University were used as control variables.

Instrument development
Development of the scales to measure each of the constructs in the model proceeded through a series of steps.As the first step, items to measure behavioural intention, attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control were generated based on a questionnaire used by Taylor and Todd (1995), Limayem et al. (2000), Kwong and Lee (2002) and Wang and Liu (2009).Facilitating condition and self-efficacy items were generated based on the model developed by Taylor and Todd (1995).All the above responses were scored on a seven-point rating scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
Initial items to measure each construct were identified based on the scales as described above.Discussions were held by the authors with the third and final year students and graduates to ensure that the items were consistent with the actual context.On the basis of the results of the above procedure, some items were modified, inserted or deleted.Questions asked of all participants were the same.However, those who were based in other countries were given the questions in the past tense and all others were given in the future tense.

Sample
It was assumed that once undergraduates select fields of specialization, they should have made an initial decision regarding the occupational choice.Many still may have only a vague idea about their post-graduation plans, however, by the third year of the academic work, the students are likely to have a better understanding of their options regarding their careers.Hence, 200 undergraduates from the third year onward of the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka were selected for this study.Students represented all 8 faculties with the percentages of 11, 15, 4, 4, 9, 16, 6 and 35 from Faculties of Medical, Engineering, Dental, Veterinary, Agriculture, Science, Allied Health Science and Arts, respectively.Proportional quota sampling method was used to select participants as using a probability sampling method was found to be impractical.In addition, 201 migrated graduates and 196 non-migrated graduates of the University of Peradeniya participated in the study.For alumni, a snow ball sampling method was used as a sampling frame was unavailable.

Data collection
The researchers collected data from the University students during a period of 2 months.
Participants took approximately 10 -15 minutes to complete the questionnaire.The data were collected from graduates through a self-administered web-based questionnaire, which was designed in a way to preserve the anonymity of the respondents.All respondents were informed that the data were collected as part of a University research study.To avoid demand effects, the respondents were guaranteed that all answers would be anonymous.

Measurement instruments
Prior to a full scale study, a pilot test was conducted with 15 respondents.For the assessment of the pilot test, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated.Nunnally (1967) argued that in the early stages of research, reliabilities ranging from 0.50 to 0.60 would suffice and for basic research, beyond 0.80 is not necessary.Hence for this research, an alpha level of 0.70 was considered as an indication of acceptable reliability.For all scales, the alpha coefficient was closer to 1 (Table1).The final questionnaire contained 37 questions to measure the constructs of interest as well as some demographic and other related questions.Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted on the determinants of behavioural intention.The components that emerged with eiganvalues greater than one were used.Table 2 gives the factor loadings, which were consistent with the expected model.

Statistical methods
In this study, the hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to test the first primary objective i.e. to identify the determinants of persuasion of university students and graduates towards overseas jobs, and was conducted separately for undergraduate and graduates.The regression model used the behavioural intention as the dependent variable.Behavioural intention was normally distributed according to Pallant (2005) i.e. for the sample of undergraduates, the Kolmogorov Smirnov value was 0.2, skewness was -0.259 and kurtosis was -0.253, while for the sample of graduates, the Kolmogorov Smirnov value was 0.097, skewness was -0.039 and kurtosis was -0.619.To evaluate the second primary objective on the role of behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control on actual behaviour (i.e.migrated or not migrated) the composite of non-migrated and migrated graduates' samples was analyzed.A logistic regression analysis was conducted with their place of work (Sri Lanka, away from Sri Lanka), as the dependent variable and behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control as the independent variable.As the behavioural intention to obtain overseas jobs is only relevant to those present in Sri Lanka, these hypotheses were tested only for undergraduates and graduates of the University of Peradeniya who are residing in Sri Lanka.

Descriptive statistics
The descriptive analysis of the formal variables Showed that the undergraduates had stronger behavioural intention toward overseas jobs compared to the graduates of University of Peradeniya who are currently in Sri Lanka and abroad (Table 3) Note.For graduates abroad, this questionnaire was formed with respect to their experience while in Sri Lanka (prior to going abroad)

Hypothesis testing
Hypotheses 1 to 5 tested the relationships between determinants and behavioural intention.
The results revealed a significant model (Tables 4 and 5).As the TPB reflects, in this study, the attitudes had a significant positive relationship with the behavioural intention for both groups and the results are consistent with the findings of Armitage et al.(1999), Davis et al.(2002) and Kwong and Lee (2002).The model revealed a significant relationship between subjective norms and behavioural intention for the undergraduate sample but not for the graduate sample present in Sri Lanka.Thus, there is a partial support for Hypothesis 2. Kwong and Lee (2002) and Reinecke et al. (1996) demonstrated a strong effect of subjective norms for youth indicating a strong influence of outside pressure on the behaviour of youth.In Sri Lanka, undergraduates are more dependent and people around them dream about their bright future.After graduation this situation changes with time.This might be the reason for such observation.
Resource facilitating condition and perceived behavioural control was important in predicting only the actual behaviour rather than the intentions of those who are still living in Sri Lanka.These two factors have thus, significantly distinguished graduates who remain in the country compared to those who have left, and many suggests that they are the decisive factor in whether graduates are practically able to pursue overseas work.This possibility makes sense as both, resource facilitating condition and perceived behavioural control depend on the context in which these graduates find themselves.These findings are inconsistent with the findings reported by Kwong and Lee (2002).At the present in Sri Lanka, there are many agents who facilitate almost all the requirements on behalf of migrators, and the services are available for an affordable price and hence, the graduates need not have much concern on the availability of resources such as time, help from others and finances.
Findings related to testing of Hypothesis 5 predicted that the self-efficacy towards getting overseas jobs was significantly related with the behavioural intention and the results were consistent with those of Hung et al. (2003) and George (2004).This expresses the judgments of their capabilities to get an overseas job is somewhat certain as they have the required capabilities and qualifications.However, further research should explore these possibilities further.
As illustrated in Fig 2 , both the behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control showed a significant and positive relationship with behaviour.This shows that when the intention and perceived easiness are more towards securing an overseas job, there is a higher possibility to get it.These findings are in accordance with the results of Davis et al. (2002).The model correctly classified 78.1 percent of cases overall Table 6 accurately picked that 77.1 percent of them have migrated.The specificity of the model is the percentage of the group without the characteristic of interest (not migrated) that is correctly identified (true negatives).Here, the specificity is 79.1 percent (graduates did not migrate were correctly predicted as not to migrate by the model).

CONCLUSION
The study examined two dependent variables; intention to pursue oversees work and actual behaviour.The results indicated that both self-efficacy and attitudes predicted the intentions as well as actual behaviour.The results were less consistent for subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and resource facilitating condition.The subjective norms significantly predicted only the intention of undergraduates to pursue such overseas careers and may reflect the unique cohesion that university students have with each other, which provides a strong determinant to their attitudes.Resource facilitating condition and perceived behavioural control did not contribute to the prediction of behavioural intention in undergraduates and graduates in Sri Lanka though it contributed to predict the actual behaviour.Hence, further research should explore the reason.
The present study was done in a limited scope in terms of its sampling technique, which used non-probabilistic method due to practical difficulties in data collection.The study also did not examine the types of jobs that graduates were pursuing overseas.Hence, further research should address these concerns as well as this might provide a more nuanced understanding on the issue.

Table 6 . Model's predicting ability: Logistic regression analysis Predicted Behaviour
Table7indicates that other than the subjective norm, all the other determinants have contributed to the prediction of actual behaviour.